LR-001009 · Physics
PROVENAngstrom star
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Angstrom star, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
Loading
Limits RegistryRegistry collection
The Physical Limits of Energy
Limits on energy density, conversion, transport, efficiency, and the useful work available in physical systems.
100+ published records in this collectionLR-001043 · Physics
PROVENAvogadro constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Avogadro constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-BATTERY-ENERGY-DENSITY · Energy
OPENBattery specific energy density (commercial cell)
Amprius Technologies' silicon-anode lithium-ion cell was independently verified at 500 Wh/kg by Mobile Power Solutions in 2023, making it the first commercially available cell verified at that level. It targets niche high-value markets (drones, aerospace, defense) rather than mainstream EVs, which typically run 250-300 Wh/kg.
LR-001044 · Physics
PROVENBohr magneton
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Bohr magneton, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001046 · Physics
PROVENBohr magneton in Hz/T
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Bohr magneton in Hz/T, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001048 · Physics
PROVENBohr magneton in K/T
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Bohr magneton in K/T, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001045 · Physics
PROVENBohr magneton in eV/T
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Bohr magneton in eV/T, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001047 · Physics
PROVENBohr magneton in inverse meter per tesla
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Bohr magneton in inverse meter per tesla, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001049 · Physics
PROVENBohr radius
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Bohr radius, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001050 · Physics
PROVENBoltzmann constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Boltzmann constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001052 · Physics
PROVENBoltzmann constant in Hz/K
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Boltzmann constant in Hz/K, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001051 · Physics
PROVENBoltzmann constant in eV/K
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Boltzmann constant in eV/K, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001053 · Physics
PROVENBoltzmann constant in inverse meter per kelvin
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Boltzmann constant in inverse meter per kelvin, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-DRAFT-CARNOT · Physics
PROVENCarnot heat-engine efficiency
No heat engine operating between two temperature reservoirs can convert heat to work more efficiently than a reversible one: the Carnot limit η ≤ 1 − T_c/T_h, where T_h and T_c are the hot and cold reservoir temperatures.
LR-001056 · Physics
PROVENCompton wavelength
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Compton wavelength, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001067 · Physics
PROVENCopper x unit
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Copper x unit, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-DEEPEST-CREWED-DIVE · Engineering
OPENDeepest dive by a crewed pressure vessel
Victor Vescovo piloted the DSV Limiting Factor to 10,934 m (± 3 m) at the bottom of Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench, in 2019 — a hull built to withstand roughly 1,100 times atmospheric pressure. This is the most rigorously documented extreme-pressure engineering achievement of any crewed vessel.
LR-001122 · Physics
PROVENFaraday constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Faraday constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-AIRCRAFT-SPEED · Engineering
OPENFastest crewed aircraft
USAF test pilot Maj. William "Pete" Knight flew the rocket-powered North American X-15A-2 to 7,274 km/h (Mach 6.7) on October 3, 1967, over California. It remains unbroken as of 2026, nearly six decades on.
LR-001123 · Physics
PROVENFermi coupling constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Fermi coupling constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001129 · Physics
PROVENHartree energy
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Hartree energy, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001130 · Physics
PROVENHartree energy in eV
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Hartree energy in eV, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-CRANE-LIFT · Engineering
OPENHeaviest single lift by a crane
The Taisun gantry crane at Yantai Raffles Shipyard, China, lifted a water-ballasted barge weighing 20,133 tonnes on April 18, 2008. The lift used a self-ballasted barge rather than a discrete fabricated structure — a narrower category than lifting manufactured cargo, but Taisun's Guinness-certified figure remains unmatched by any subsequent lift.
LR-AIRCRAFT-ALTITUDE · Engineering
OPENHighest sustained altitude, crewed aircraft
A Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird, crewed by Capt. Robert C. Helt and Maj. Larry A. Elliott, reached 25,929 m (85,069 ft) in sustained horizontal flight on July 28, 1976. A separate, higher figure — 37,650 m by a MiG-25 in a near-vertical zoom climb (Alexandr Fedotov, 1977) — is the official FAI absolute-altitude record, but that was a brief ballistic peak, not sustained flight, which is why this record uses the SR-71 figure instead.
LR-HYDROGEN-PRODUCTION-EFFICIENCY · Energy
OPENHydrogen electrolysis efficiency
Bloom Energy's solid oxide electrolyzer was independently measured by Idaho National Laboratory (a U.S. Department of Energy national lab) at 37.7 kWh/kg H2 (88.5% LHV-referenced efficiency) after roughly 500 hours of full-load operation, reported in 2022. The theoretical thermodynamic minimum is 33.3 kWh/kg on an LHV basis (39.4 kWh/kg on an HHV basis) — vendors routinely cite whichever basis flatters their number, so any comparison across electrolyzer efficiency claims needs to check which reference basis is being used.
LR-001166 · Physics
PROVENJosephson constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Josephson constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-DRAFT-LANDAUER · Physics
OPENLandauer bit-erasure limit
Erasing one bit of information in a logically irreversible way necessarily dissipates heat into the environment — a fundamental link between information and thermodynamics. The minimum dissipated energy is Q ≥ k_B T ln(2), where T is the system's temperature.
LR-NUCLEAR-REACTOR-OUTPUT · Energy
OPENLargest nuclear reactor unit (net electrical output)
Taishan Nuclear Power Plant Unit 1 (Guangdong, China), an EPR-design reactor, entered commercial operation in December 2018 at 1,660 MW net electrical output (1,750 MW gross) — the largest of any operating reactor unit as of 2026. Larger EPR-class units under construction elsewhere (e.g. Hinkley Point C, UK) are not yet operational.
LR-WIND-TURBINE-CAPACITY · Energy
OPENLargest wind turbine (nameplate capacity)
The Mingyang MySE 16-260 offshore wind turbine, rated at 16 MW, holds the Guinness World Records certification as of 2026. A larger 26 MW Dongfang Electric prototype was grid-connected for testing at a facility in Shandong, China in late 2025, but has not yet been independently certified as a record by Guinness — this record is likely to change once that certification catches up.
LR-BRIDGE-SPAN · Engineering
OPENLongest suspension bridge main span
The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge, crossing the Dardanelles Strait in Turkey, opened March 18, 2022 with a main span of 2,023 meters — surpassing Japan's Akashi Kaikyo Bridge (1,991 m) by 32 meters. No longer span is currently under construction.
LR-001190 · Physics
PROVENLoschmidt constant (273.15 K, 100 kPa)
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Loschmidt constant (273.15 K, 100 kPa), retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001191 · Physics
PROVENLoschmidt constant (273.15 K, 101.325 kPa)
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Loschmidt constant (273.15 K, 101.325 kPa), retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001201 · Physics
PROVENMolybdenum x unit
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Molybdenum x unit, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-NAVIER-STOKES · Physics
OPENNavier–Stokes existence and smoothness
The Navier–Stokes equations, formulated in the 19th century, describe how fluids like air and water move and are the basis of weather prediction, aircraft design, and blood-flow modeling. Despite how thoroughly they're used in practice, nobody has proven that their solutions in three dimensions stay smooth (well-behaved) for all time rather than developing a singularity — or found a case where one does.
LR-001252 · Physics
PROVENNewtonian constant of gravitation
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Newtonian constant of gravitation, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001253 · Physics
PROVENNewtonian constant of gravitation over h-bar c
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Newtonian constant of gravitation over h-bar c, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001259 · Physics
PROVENPlanck constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001260 · Physics
PROVENPlanck constant in eV/Hz
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck constant in eV/Hz, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001261 · Physics
PROVENPlanck length
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck length, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001262 · Physics
PROVENPlanck mass
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck mass, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001263 · Physics
PROVENPlanck mass energy equivalent in GeV
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck mass energy equivalent in GeV, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001264 · Physics
PROVENPlanck temperature
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck temperature, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001265 · Physics
PROVENPlanck time
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Planck time, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001297 · Physics
PROVENRydberg constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Rydberg constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001298 · Physics
PROVENRydberg constant times c in Hz
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Rydberg constant times c in Hz, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001300 · Physics
PROVENRydberg constant times hc in J
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Rydberg constant times hc in J, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001299 · Physics
PROVENRydberg constant times hc in eV
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Rydberg constant times hc in eV, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001301 · Physics
PROVENSackur-Tetrode constant (1 K, 100 kPa)
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Sackur-Tetrode constant (1 K, 100 kPa), retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001302 · Physics
PROVENSackur-Tetrode constant (1 K, 101.325 kPa)
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Sackur-Tetrode constant (1 K, 101.325 kPa), retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-SOLAR-CELL-EFFICIENCY · Energy
OPENSolar cell efficiency (any technology)
Fraunhofer ISE (Germany) reported a four-junction III-V concentrator cell at 47.6% efficiency under 665x sunlight concentration in May 2022, listed on NREL's Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart. It remains the highest confirmed photovoltaic efficiency of any kind as of 2026 — note this is a lab concentrator cell, not representative of any deployable rooftop panel (best one-sun silicon cells run closer to 28%).
LR-DRAFT-C · Physics
PROVENSpeed of light in vacuum
The speed of light in vacuum is one of the few physical constants whose value is exact by definition rather than measurement — the 1983 SI redefinition of the metre fixed it precisely, making it the ultimate speed limit for information and matter in relativity.
LR-001322 · Physics
PROVENStefan-Boltzmann constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Stefan-Boltzmann constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001333 · Physics
PROVENThomson cross section
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Thomson cross section, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001354 · Physics
PROVENW to Z mass ratio
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of W to Z mass ratio, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001352 · Physics
PROVENWien frequency displacement law constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Wien frequency displacement law constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001353 · Physics
PROVENWien wavelength displacement law constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of Wien wavelength displacement law constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-YANG-MILLS · Physics
OPENYang–Mills existence and mass gap
Yang–Mills theory underlies the Standard Model's description of the strong nuclear force, and its predictions have been repeatedly confirmed in particle accelerators. Physicists have observed empirically that the theory's particles behave as if they have positive mass (a 'mass gap'), even though the classical fields it's built from travel at the speed of light — but no one has constructed the theory with full mathematical rigor or proven the mass gap exists.
LR-001001 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle mass
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle mass, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001002 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle mass energy equivalent
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle mass energy equivalent, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001003 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle mass energy equivalent in MeV
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle mass energy equivalent in MeV, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001004 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle mass in u
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle mass in u, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001005 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle molar mass
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle molar mass, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001007 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle relative atomic mass
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle relative atomic mass, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001008 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle rms charge radius
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle rms charge radius, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001000 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle-electron mass ratio
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle-electron mass ratio, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001006 · Physics
PROVENalpha particle-proton mass ratio
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of alpha particle-proton mass ratio, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001010 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass constant
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass constant, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001011 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass constant energy equivalent
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass constant energy equivalent, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001012 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass constant energy equivalent in MeV
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass constant energy equivalent in MeV, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001013 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-electron volt relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-electron volt relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001014 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-hartree relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-hartree relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001015 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-hertz relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-hertz relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001016 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-inverse meter relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-inverse meter relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001017 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-joule relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-joule relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001018 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-kelvin relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-kelvin relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001019 · Physics
PROVENatomic mass unit-kilogram relationship
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic mass unit-kilogram relationship, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001020 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of 1st hyperpolarizability
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of 1st hyperpolarizability, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001021 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of 2nd hyperpolarizability
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of 2nd hyperpolarizability, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001022 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of action
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of action, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001023 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of charge
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of charge, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001024 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of charge density
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of charge density, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001025 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of current
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of current, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001026 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of electric dipole mom.
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of electric dipole mom., retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001027 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of electric field
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of electric field, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001028 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of electric field gradient
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of electric field gradient, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001029 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of electric polarizability
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of electric polarizability, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001030 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of electric potential
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of electric potential, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001031 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of electric quadrupole mom.
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of electric quadrupole mom., retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001032 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of energy
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of energy, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001033 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of force
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of force, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001034 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of length
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of length, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001035 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of mag. dipole mom.
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of mag. dipole mom., retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001036 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of mag. flux density
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of mag. flux density, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001037 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of magnetizability
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of magnetizability, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001038 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of mass
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of mass, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001039 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of momentum
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of momentum, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001040 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of permittivity
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of permittivity, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001041 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of time
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of time, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001042 · Physics
PROVENatomic unit of velocity
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of atomic unit of velocity, retained with its published standard uncertainty.
LR-001054 · Physics
PROVENcharacteristic impedance of vacuum
The 2022 CODATA recommended value of characteristic impedance of vacuum, retained with its published standard uncertainty.